## TensorFlow Introduction

• This tutorial offers an overview of the preliminary setup, training process,loss functions and optimizers in TensorFlow.
• We cover a practical demonstration of TensorFlow with an example from Vision and another from NLP.

### Getting started

#### Creating a virtual environment

• To accommodate the fact that different projects utilize different versions of Python modules, it is a good practice to have multiple virtual environments to work on different projects.
• Python Setup: Remote vs. Local offers an in-depth coverage of the various remote and local options available.

#### Using a GPU?

• Note that your GPU needs to be set up first (drivers, CUDA and CuDNN).
• For TensorFlow, just run pip install tensorflow-gpu. When both tensorflow and tensorflow-gpu are installed, if a GPU is available, TensorFlow will transparently make use of the GPU, without you having to carry out code changes, unlike PyTorch.

### Motivation

• The goal of this tutorial is to quickly build a TensorFlow code-base implementing a Neural Network to classify hand digits from the MNIST dataset.

• To do so, the steps you are going to implement are:

2. Define placeholders.
3. Define parameters of your model.
4. Define the model’s graph (including the cost function).
6. Define the optimization method and the training step.
7. Initialize the TensorFlow graph.
8. Optimize (loop).
9. Compute training and testing accuracies.

### Goals of this tutorial

• Learn the basics of TensorFlow.
• Learn an example of how to correctly structure a deep learning project in TensorFlow.
• Fully understand how to implement ideas in code to be able to use it for your own projects.

### Resources

• We recommend the following code hierarchy to organize your data, model code, experiments, results and logs:
data/
experiments/
model/
input_fn.py
model_fn.py
utils.py
training.py
evaluation.py
train.py
search_hyperparams.py
synthesize_results.py
evaluate.py

• Here is each model/ file purpose:
• model/input_fn.py: where you define the input data pipeline
• model/model_fn.py: creates the deep learning model
• model/utils.py: utility functions for handling hyperparams/logging
• model/training.py: utility functions to train a model
• model/evaluation.py: utility functions to evaluate a model
• We recommend reading through train.py to get a high-level overview.

• Once you get the high-level idea, depending on your task and dataset, you might want to modify:
• model/model_fn.py to change the model’s architecture, i.e. how you transform your input into your prediction as well as your loss, etc.
• model/input_fn to change the process of feeding data to the model.
• train.py and evaluate.py to change the story-line (maybe you need to change the filenames, load a vocabulary, etc.)
• Once you get something working for your dataset, feel free to edit any part of the code to suit your own needs.

### Graph, Session and nodes

• When designing a Model in TensorFlow, there are basically two steps.
1. building the computational graph, the nodes and operations and how they are connected to each other
2. evaluating / running this graph on some data
• As an example of step 1, if we define a TF constant (= a graph node), when we print it, we get a Tensor object (= a node) and not its value.
x = tf.constant(1., dtype=tf.float32, name="my-node-x")
print(x) # Prints Tensor("my-node-x:0", shape=(), dtype=float32)

• Now, let’s move to step 2, and evaluate this node. We’ll need to create a tf.Session that will take care of actually evaluating the graph.
with tf.Session() as sess:
print(sess.run(x)) # Prints 1.0


### A word about variable scopes

• When creating a node, TensorFlow will have a name for it. You can add a prefix to the nodes names. This is done with the variable_scope mechanism.
with tf.variable_scope('model'):
x1 = tf.get_variable('x', [], dtype=tf.float32) # get or create variable with name 'model/x:0'
print(x1) # Prints <tf.Variable 'model/x:0' shape=() dtype=float32_ref>

• What happens if we instantiate x twice?
with tf.variable_scope('model'):
x2 = tf.get_variable('x', [], dtype=tf.float32) # Prints ValueError: Variable model/x already exists, disallowed.

• When trying to create a new variable named model/x, we run into an Exception as a variable with the same name already exists. Thanks to this naming mechanism, you can actually control which value you give to the different nodes, and at different points of your code, decide to have 2 python objects correspond to the same node!
with tf.variable_scope('model', reuse=True):
x2 = tf.get_variable('x', [], dtype=tf.float32)
print(x2) # Prints <tf.Variable 'model/x:0' shape=() dtype=float32_ref>

• We can check that they indeed have the same value:
with tf.Session() as sess:
sess.run(tf.global_variables_initializer()) # Initialize the Variables
sess.run(tf.assign(x1, tf.constant(1.)))    # Change the value of x1
sess.run(tf.assign(x2, tf.constant(2.)))    # Change the value of x2
print("x1 = ", sess.run(x1), " x2 = ", sess.run(x2)) # Prints x1 = 2.0  x2 = 2.0


### Dealing with different Training/Evaluation Graphs

• Code examples design choice: theoretically, the graphs you define for training and inference can be different, but they still need to share their weights. To remedy this issue, there are two possibilities:
1. Re-build the graph, create a new session and reload the weights from some file when we switch between training and inference.
2. Create all the nodes for training and inference in the graph and make sure that the python code does not create the nodes twice by using the reuse=True trick explained above.
• Here, we’re going ahead with the second option. As you’ll notice in train.py we give an extra argument when we build our graphs:
train_model_spec = model_fn('train', train_inputs, params)
eval_model_spec = model_fn('eval', eval_inputs, params, reuse=True)

• When we create the graph for the evaluation (eval_model_spec), the model_fn will encapsulate all the nodes in a tf.variable_scope("model", reuse=True) so that the nodes that have the same names than in the training graph share their weights!
• For those interested in the problem of making training and eval graphs coexist, you can read this discussion which advocates for the other option.
• As a side note, option 1 is also the one used in tf.Estimator.

## Building the data pipeline

### Motivation

• Building the input pipeline in a machine learning project is always long and painful, and can take more time than building the actual model. In this tutorial we will learn how to use TensorFlow’s Dataset module tf.data to build efficient pipelines for images and text.

### Goals of this tutorial

• Learn how to use tf.data and the best practices.
• Build an efficient pipeline for text, including how to build a vocabulary.

### Overview of tf.data

• The Dataset API allows you to build an asynchronous, highly optimized data pipeline to prevent your GPU from data starvation. It loads data from the disk (images or text), applies optimized transformations, creates batches and sends it to the GPU. Former data pipelines made the GPU wait for the CPU to load the data, leading to performance issues.

Before explaining how tf.data works with a simple example, we’ll share some great official resources:

### Introduction to tf.data with a Text Example

• Let’s go over a quick example. Let’s say we have a file.txt file containing sentences
I use TensorFlow
You use PyTorch
Both are great

• Let’s read this file with the tf.data API:
dataset = tf.data.TextLineDataset("file.txt")

• Let’s try to iterate over it:
for line in dataset:
print(line)

• We get an error
> TypeError: 'TextLineDataset' object is not iterable

• Wait! What just happened? I thought it was supposed to read the data.

### Iterators and transformations

• What’s really happening is that dataset is a node of the TensorFlow Graph that contains instructions to read the file. We need to initialize the graph and evaluate this node in a Session if we want to read it. While this may sound awfully complicated, this is quite the oposite : now, even the dataset object is a part of the graph, so you don’t need to worry about how to feed the data into your model!

• We need to add a few things to make it work. First, let’s create an iterator object over the dataset

iterator = dataset.make_one_shot_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()

• The one_shot_iterator method creates an iterator that will be able to iterate once over the dataset. In other words, once we reach the end of the dataset, it will stop yielding elements and raise an Exception.

• Now, next_element is a graph’s node that will contain the next element of iterator over the Dataset at each execution. Now, let’s run it

with tf.Session() as sess:
for i in range(3):
print(sess.run(next_element))

>'I use TensorFlow'
>'You use PyTorch'
>'Both are great'

• Now that you understand the idea behind the tf.data API, let’s quickly review some more advanced tricks. First, you can easily apply transformations to your dataset. For instance, splitting words by space is as easy as adding one line
dataset = dataset.map(lambda string: tf.string_split([string]).values)

• Shuffling the dataset is also straightforward
dataset = dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=3)

• It will load elements $$3$$ by $$3$$ and shuffle them at each iteration.

• You can also create batches:

dataset = dataset.batch(2)

• And prefetch data (in other words, it will always have one batch ready to be loaded):
dataset = dataset.prefetch(1)

• Now, let’s see what our iterator has become:
iterator = dataset.make_one_shot_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()
with tf.Session() as sess:
print(sess.run(next_element))

>[['Both' 'are' 'great']
['You' 'use' 'PyTorch']]

• As you can see, we now have a batch created from the shuffled dataset!

• All the nodes in the Graph are assumed to be batched: every Tensor object will have shape = [None, ...] where None corresponds to the (unspecified) batch dimension.

### Why do we use initializable iterators?

dataset = tf.data.TextLineDataset("file.txt")
iterator = dataset.make_initializable_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()
init_op = iterator.initializer

• The behavior of an initializable iterator is similar to the one above, but thanks to the init_op we can chose to “restart” from the beginning. This will become quite handy when we want to perform multiple epochs!
with tf.Session() as sess:
#Initialize the iterator
sess.run(init_op)
print(sess.run(next_element))
print(sess.run(next_element))
#Move the iterator back to the beginning
sess.run(init_op)
print(sess.run(next_element))

> 'I use TensorFlow'
'You use PyTorch'
'I use TensorFlow' # Iterator moved back at the beginning

• As we use only one session over the different epochs, we need to be able to restart the iterator. Some other approaches (like tf.Estimator) alleviate the need of using initializable iterators by creating a new session at each epoch. But this comes at a cost: the weights and the graph must be re-loaded and re-initialized with each call to estimator.train() or estimator.evaluate().

### Data pipeline

• The model/input_fn.py defines a function input_fn that returns a dictionary that looks like:
images, labels = iterator.get_next()
iterator_init_op = iterator.initializer

inputs = {'images': images, 'labels': labels, 'iterator_init_op': iterator_init_op}

• This dictionary of inputs will be passed onto the model function, explained in the next section.

## Building an image data pipeline

• Here is what a Dataset for images might look like. Here we already have a list of filenames to JPEG images and a corresponding list of labels.
• We apply the following steps for training:
1. Create the dataset from slices of the filenames and labels
2. Shuffle the data with a buffer size equal to the length of the dataset. This ensures good shuffling (cf. this answer)
3. Parse the images from filename to the pixel values. Use multiple threads to improve the speed of preprocessing
4. (Optional for training) Data augmentation for the images. Use multiple threads to improve the speed of preprocessing
5. Batch the images
6. Prefetch one batch to make sure that a batch is ready to be served at all time
dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((filenames, labels))
dataset = dataset.shuffle(len(filenames))
dataset = dataset.map(parse_function, num_parallel_calls=4)
dataset = dataset.map(train_preprocess, num_parallel_calls=4)
dataset = dataset.batch(batch_size)
dataset = dataset.prefetch(1)

• parse_function does the following:
• Read the content of the file.
• Decode using JPEG format.
• Convert to float values in [0, 1].
• Resize to size (64, 64).
def parse_function(filename, label):

#Don't use tf.image.decode_image, or the output shape will be undefined
image = tf.image.decode_jpeg(image_string, channels=3)

#This will convert to float values in [0, 1]
image = tf.image.convert_image_dtype(image, tf.float32)

image = tf.image.resize_images(image, [64, 64])
return resized_image, label

• Finally, train_preprocess() can be optionally used during training to perform data augmentation:
• Horizontally flip the image with probability $$1/2$$.
• Apply random brightness and saturation.
def train_preprocess(image, label):
image = tf.image.random_flip_left_right(image)

image = tf.image.random_brightness(image, max_delta=32.0 / 255.0)
image = tf.image.random_saturation(image, lower=0.5, upper=1.5)

#Make sure the image is still in [0, 1]
image = tf.clip_by_value(image, 0.0, 1.0)

return image, label


## Building a text data pipeline

• Have a look at the TensorFlow seq2seq tutorial using the tf.data pipeline:
• TensorFlow’s official set of tutorials
• Neural Machine Translation (seq2seq) Tutorial on Github

### File format

• We’ve covered a simple example in the overview of tf.data section. Now, let’s cover a more advanced example. Let’s assume that our task is Named Entity Recognition. In other words, our input is a sentence, and our output is a label for each word, like in:
John   lives in New   York
B-PER  O     O  B-LOC I-LOC

• Our dataset will thus need to load both the sentences and the labels. We will store those in 2 different files, a sentence.txt file containing the sentences (one per line) and a labels.txt containing the labels. For e.g.:
# sentences.txt
John lives in New York
Where is John ?

# labels.txt
B-PER O O B-LOC I-LOC
O O B-PER O

• Constructing tf.data objects that iterate over these files is easy:
# Load txt file, one example per line
sentences = tf.data.TextLineDataset("sentences.txt")
labels = tf.data.TextLineDataset("labels.txt")


### Zip datasets together

• At this stage, we might want to iterate over these 2 files at the same time. This operation is usually known as a “zip”. Luckilly, the tf.data comes with such a function
#Zip the sentence and the labels together
dataset = tf.data.Dataset.zip((sentences, labels))

#Create a one shot iterator over the zipped dataset
iterator = dataset.make_one_shot_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()

#Actually run in a session
with tf.Session() as sess:
for i in range(2):
print(sess.run(dataset))

> ('John lives in New York', 'B-PER O O B-LOC I-LOC')
('Where is John ?', 'O O B-PER O')


### Creating a vocabulary

• Great, now we can get the sentence and the labels as we iterate. Let’s see how we can transform this string into a sequence of words and then in a sequence of ids.
• Most NLP systems rely on ids as input for the words, meaning that you’ll eventually have to convert your sentence into a sequence of ids.
• Here we assume that we ran some script, like build_vocab.py that created some vocabulary files in our /data directory. We’ll need one file for the words and one file for the labels. They will contain one token per line. For instance,
#words.txt
John
lives
in
...


and

#tags.txt
B-PER
B-LOC
...

• TensorFlow has a cool built-in tool to take care of the mapping. We simply define two lookup tables:
words = tf.contrib.lookup.index_table_from_file("data/words.txt", num_oov_buckets=1)
tags = tf.contrib.lookup.index_table_from_file("data/tags.txt")

• The parameter num_oov_buckets specifies the number of buckets created for unknown words. The id will be determined by TensorFlow and we don’t have to worry about it. As in most of the cases, we just want to have one id reserved for the out-of-vocabulary words, we just use num_oov_buckets=1.

• Now that we initialized this lookup table, we are going to transform the way we read the files, by adding these extra lines

#Convert line into list of tokens, splitting by white space
sentences = sentences.map(lambda string: tf.string_split([string]).values)

#Lookup tokens to return their ids
sentences = sentences.map(lambda tokens: (words.lookup(tokens), tf.size(tokens)))

• Be careful that tf.string_split returns a tf.SparseTensor, that’s why we need to extract the values.

• Now we can iterate and get a list of IDs of words and labels for each sentence. We just need to take care of one final thing: batches! But here comes a problem: sentences have different length. Thus, we need to perform an extra padding operation that will add special token to shorter sentences so that our final batch Tensor object is a tensor of shape [batch_size, max_len_of_sentence_in_the_batch].

• We first need to specify the padding shapes and values

#Create batches and pad the sentences of different length
padded_shapes = (tf.TensorShape([None]),   # sentence of unknown size
tf.TensorShape([None]))  # labels of unknown size


• Note that the padding_values must be in the vocabulary (otherwise we might have a problem later on). That’s why we get the id of the special <pad> token in train.py with id_pad_word = words.lookup(tf.constant('<pad>')).

• Then, we can just use the tf.data padded_batch method, that takes care of the padding!

#Shuffle the dataset and then create the padded batches
dataset = (dataset
.shuffle(buffer_size=buffer_size)
)


### Computing the sentence’s size

• Is that all that we need in general? Not quite. As we mentioned padding, we have to make sure that our model does not take the extra padded-tokens into account when computing its prediction. A common way of solving this issue is to add extra information to our data iterator and give the length of the input sentence as input. Later on, we will be able to give this argument to the dynamic_rnn function or create binary masks with tf.sequence_mask.

• Look at the model/input_fn.py file for more details. But basically, it boils down to adding one line, using tf.size

sentences = sentences.map(lambda tokens: (vocab.lookup(tokens), tf.size(tokens)))


### Advanced use - extracting characters

Now, let’s try to perform a more complicated operation. We want to extract characters from each word, maybe because our NLP system relies on characters. Our input is a file that looks like:

1 22
3333 4 55

• We first create a dataset that yields the words for each sentence, as usual:
dataset = tf.data.TextLineDataset("file.txt")
dataset = dataset.map(lambda token: tf.string_split([token]).values)

• Now, we are going to reuse the tf.string_split function. However, it outputs a sparse tensor, a convenient data representation in general but which doesn’t seem do be supported (yet) by tf.data. Thus, we need to convert this SparseTensor to a regular Tensor.
def extract_char(token, default_value="<pad_char>"):
#Split characters
out = tf.string_split(token, delimiter='')
#Convert to Dense tensor, filling with default value
out = tf.sparse_tensor_to_dense(out, default_value=default_value)
return out

#Dataset yields word and characters
dataset = dataset.map(lambda token: (token, extract_char(token)))

• Notice how we specified a default_value to the tf.sparse_tensor_to_dense function: words have different lengths, thus the SparseTensor that we need to convert has some unspecified entries!

• Creating the padded batches is still as easy as above:

#Creating the padded batch
tf.TensorShape([None, None])) # padding the characters for each word


• and you can test that the output matches your expectations:
iterator = dataset.make_one_shot_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()

with tf.Session() as sess:
for i in range(1):
sentences, characters = sess.run(next_element))
print(sentences[0])
print(characters[0][1])

> ['1', '22', '<pad_word>']               # sentence 1 (words)

• Question: Can you explain why we have $$2$$ <pad_char> and $$1$$ <pad_word> in the first batch?

## Best Practices

• One general tip mentioned in TensorFlow’s performance guide is to put all the data processing pipeline on the CPU to make sure that the GPU is only used for training the deep neural network model:
with tf.device('/cpu:0'):
dataset = ...


### Shuffle and repeat

• When training on a dataset, we often need to repeat it for multiple epochs and we need to shuffle it.
• One big caveat when shuffling is to make sure that the buffer_size argument is big enough. The bigger it is, the longer it is going to take to load the data at the beginning. However a low buffer size can be disastrous for training.
• Here’s a good answer on StackOverflow detailing an example of why.
• The best way to avoid this kind of error would be to split the dataset into train/dev/test in advance and shuffle it right away. For more, see our tutorial on splitting datasets.
• In general, it is good to have the shuffling and repeat at the beginning of the pipeline. For instance if the input to the dataset is a list of filenames, if we directly shuffle after that the buffer of tf.data.Dataset.shuffle() will only contain filenames, which is very light on memory.
• When choosing the ordering between shuffle and repeat, you may consider two options:
• Shuffle then repeat: we shuffle the dataset in a certain way, and repeat this shuffling for multiple epochs (ex: [1, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2] for 2 epochs with 3 elements in the dataset)
• Repeat then shuffle: we repeat the dataset for multiple epochs and then shuffle (ex: [1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 2] for 2 epochs with 3 elements in the dataset)
• The second method provides a better shuffling, but you might wait multiple epochs without seeing an example. The first method makes sure that you always see every element in the dataset at each epoch. You can also use tf.contrib.data.shuffle_and_repeat() to perform shuffle and repeat.

• Parallelization of the data processing pipeline using multiple threads is almost transparent when using the tf.data module. We only need to add a num_parallel_calls argument to every dataset.map() call.
num_threads = 4


### Prefetch data

• When the GPU is working on forward / backward propagation on the current batch, we want the CPU to process the next batch of data so that it is immediately ready. As the most expensive part of the computer, we want the GPU to be fully used all the time during training. We call this consumer / producer overlap, where the consumer is the GPU and the producer is the CPU.

• With tf.data, you can do this with a simple call to dataset.prefetch(1) at the end of the pipeline (after batching). This will always prefetch one batch of data and make sure that there is always one ready.

dataset = dataset.batch(64)
dataset = dataset.prefetch(1)

• In some cases, it can be useful to prefetch more than one batch. For instance if the duration of the preprocessing varies a lot, prefetching $$10$$ batches would average out the processing time over 10 batches, instead of sometimes waiting for longer batches.

• To give a concrete example, suppose than $$10\%$$ of the batches take $$10$$s to compute, and $$90\%$$ take $$1$$s. If the GPU takes $$2$$s to train on one batch, by prefetching multiple batches you make sure that we never wait for these rare longer batches.

### Order of the operations

• To summarize, a good order for the different transformations is:

1. Create the dataset.
2. Shuffle (with a big enough buffer size).
3. Repeat.
4. Map with the actual work (preprocessing, augmentation, etc.) using multiple parallel calls.
5. Batch.
6. Prefetch.

## Create and train a TF model

### Goals of this tutorial

• Learn how to easily build models using tf.layers.

### Defining the model

• Now that we have the input dictionary containing tensors corresponding to the data, let’s explain how we build the model.

#### Introduction to tf.layers

• This high-level TensorFlow API lets you build and prototype models in a few lines. You can have a look at the official tutorial for computer vision, or at the list of available layers. The idea is quite simple so we’ll just give an example.

• Let’s get an input tensor with a similar mechanism than the one explained in the previous part. Remember that None corresponds to the batch dimension.

#shape = [None, 64, 64, 3]
images = inputs["images"]

• Now, let’s apply a convolution, a ReLU activation and a max-pooling. This is as simple as
out = images
out = tf.layers.conv2d(out, 16, 3, padding='same')
out = tf.nn.relu(out)
out = tf.layers.max_pooling2d(out, 2, 2)

• Finally, use this final tensor to predict the labels of the image (6 classes). We first need to reshape the output of the max-pooling to a vector
#First, reshape the output into [batch_size, flat_size]
out = tf.reshape(out, [-1, 32 * 32 * 16])
#Now, logits is [batch_size, 6]
logits = tf.layers.dense(out, 6)

• Note the use of -1: TensorFlow will compute the corresponding dimension so that the total size is preserved.
• The logits will be unnormalized scores for each example.
• In the code examples, the transformation from inputs to logits is done in the build_model function.

#### Training ops

• At this point, we have defined the logits of the model. We need to define our predictions, our loss, etc. You can have a look at the model_fn in model/model_fn.py.
#Get the labels from the input data pipeline
labels = inputs['labels']
labels = tf.cast(labels, tf.int64)

#Define the prediction as the argmax of the scores
predictions = tf.argmax(logits, 1)

#Define the loss
loss = tf.losses.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy(labels=labels, logits=logits)

• The 1 in tf.argmax tells TensorFlow to take the argmax on the axis = 1 (remember that axis = 0 is the batch dimension)

• Now, let’s use TensorFlow built-in functions to create nodes and operators that will train our model at each iteration!

#Create an optimizer that will take care of the Gradient Descent

#Create the training operation
train_op = optimizer.minimize(loss)

• All these nodes are created by model_fn that returns a dictionary model_spec containing all the necessary nodes and operators of the graph. This dictionary will later be used for actually running the training operations etc.

• And that’s all! Our model is ready to be trained. Remember that all the objects we defined so far are nodes or operators that are part of the TensorFlow graph. To evaluate them, we actually need to execute them in a session. Simply run

with tf.Session() as sess:
for i in range(num_batches):
_, loss_val = sess.run([train_op, loss])

• Notice how we don’t need to feed data to the session as the tf.data nodes automatically iterate over the dataset! At every iteration of the loop, it will move to the next batch (remember the tf.data part), compute the loss, and execute the train_op that will perform one update of the weights!
• For more details, have a look at the model/training.py file that defines the train_and_evaluate function.

#### Putting input_fn and model_fn together

• To summarize the different steps, we just give a high-level overview of what needs to be done in train.py
#1. Create the iterators over the Training and Evaluation datasets
train_inputs = input_fn(True, train_filenames, train_labels, params)
eval_inputs = input_fn(False, eval_filenames, eval_labels, params)

#2. Define the model
logging.info("Creating the model...")
train_model_spec = model_fn('train', train_inputs, params)
eval_model_spec = model_fn('eval', eval_inputs, params, reuse=True)

#3. Train the model (where a session will actually run the different ops)
logging.info("Starting training for {} epoch(s)".format(params.num_epochs))
train_and_evaluate(train_model_spec, eval_model_spec, args.model_dir, params, args.restore_from)


The train_and_evaluate function performs a given number of epochs (= full pass on the train_inputs). At the end of each epoch, it evaluates the performance on the development set (dev or train-dev in the course material).

Remember the discussion about different graphs for Training and Evaluation. Here, notice how the eval_model_spec is given the reuse=True argument. It will make sure that the nodes of the Evaluation graph which must share weights with the Training graph do share their weights.

#### Evaluation and tf.metrics

TensorFlow doc

• So far, we’ve explained how we input data to the graph, how we define the different nodes and training ops, but we don’t know (yet) how to compute some metrics on our dataset. There are basically 2 possibilities
1. [run evaluation outside the TensorFlow graph] Evaluate the prediction over the dataset by running sess.run(prediction) and use it to evaluate your model (without TensorFlow, with pure python code). This option can also be used if you need to write a file with all the predictions and use a script (distributed by a conference for instance) to evaluate the performance of your model.
2. [use TensorFlow] As the above method can be quite complicated for simple metrics, TensorFlow luckily has some built-in tools to run evaluation. Again, we are going to create nodes and operations in the Graph. The concept is simple: we will use the tf.metrics API to build those, the idea being that we need to update the metric on each batch. At the end of the epoch, we can just query the updated metric!
• We’ll cover method 2 as this is the one we implemented in the code examples (but you can definitely go with option 1 by modifying model/evaluation.py). As most of the nodes of the graph, we define these metrics nodes and ops in model/model_fn.py.
# Define the different metrics
with tf.variable_scope("metrics"):
metrics = {'accuracy': tf.metrics.accuracy(labels=labels, predictions=predictions,
'loss': tf.metrics.mean(loss)}

# Group the update ops for the tf.metrics, so that we can run only one op to update them all
update_metrics_op = tf.group(*[op for _, op in metrics.values()])

# Get the op to reset the local variables used in tf.metrics, for when we restart an epoch
metric_variables = tf.get_collection(tf.GraphKeys.LOCAL_VARIABLES, scope="metrics")
metrics_init_op = tf.variables_initializer(metric_variables)

• Note that we defined the metrics, a grouped update op and an initializer. The use of the * in tf.group is a pythonic way to tell that the argument given to the function corresponds to an optional positional argument.

• Also note how we defined the metrics in a special variable_scope so that we can query the variables by name when we create the initializer! When you create nodes, the variables are added to some pre-defined collections of variables (TRAINABLE_VARIABLES, etc.). The variables we need to reset for tf.metrics are in the tf.GraphKeys.LOCAL_VARIABLES collection. Thus, to query the variables, we get the collection of variables in the right scope!

• Now, to evaluate the metrics on a dataset, we’ll just need to run them in a session as we loop over our dataset

with tf.Session() as sess:
#Run the initializer to reset the metrics to zero
sess.run(metrics_init_op)

#Update the metrics over the dataset
for _ in range(num_steps):
sess.run(update_metrics_op)

#Get the values of the metrics
metrics_values = {k: v[0] for k, v in metrics.items()}
metrics_val = sess.run(metrics_values)

• That’s all! If you want to compute new metrics for which you can find a TensorFlow implementation, you can define it in the model_fn.py (add it to the metrics dictionary). It will automatically be updated during the training and will be displayed at the end of each epoch.

## TensorFlow Tips and Tricks

### Be careful with initialization

• So far, we mentioned 3 different initializer operators.
#1. For all the variables (the weights etc.)
tf.global_variables_initializer()

#2. For the dataset, so that we can chose to move the iterator back at the beginning
iterator = dataset.make_initializable_iterator()
next_element = iterator.get_next()
iterator_init_op = iterator.initializer

#3. For the metrics variables, so that we can reset them to 0 at the beginning of each epoch
metrics_init_op = tf.variables_initializer(metric_variables)

• During train_and_evaluate we perform the following schedule, all in one session:
1. Loop over the training set, updating the weights and computing the metrics
2. Loop over the evaluation set, computing the metrics
3. Go back to step 1.
• We thus need to run:
• tf.global_variable_initializer() at the very beginning (before the first occurrence of step 1)
• iterator_init_op at the beginning of every loop (step 1 and step 2)
• metrics_init_op at the beginning of every loop (step 1 and step 2), to reset the metrics to zero (we don’t want to compute the metrics averaged over the different epochs or different datasets!)
• You can indeed check that this is what we do in model/evaluation.py or model/training.py when we actually run the graph!

### Saving

• How do you re-use the weights once you’ve trained a model? Also, maybe at some point of the training, if the performance on the validation set started to get worse, we might want to use the best weights during training.
• Saving models is easy in TensorFlow. Look at the outline below:
#We need to create an instance of saver
saver = tf.train.Saver()

for epoch in range(10):
for batch in range(10):
_ = sess.run(train_op)

#Save weights
save_path = os.path.join(model_dir, 'last_weights', 'after-epoch')
saver.save(sess, last_save_path, global_step=epoch + 1)

• There is not much to say, except that the saver.save() method takes a session as input. In our implementation, we use 2 savers. A last_saver = tf.train.Saver() that will keep the weights at the end of the last $$5$$ epochs and a best_saver = tf.train.Saver(max_to_keep=1) that only keeps one checkpoint corresponding to the weights that achieved the best performance on the validation set!
• Later on, to restore the weights of your model, you need to reload the weights thanks to a saver instance, as in
with tf.Session() as sess:
#Get the latest checkpoint in the directory
restore_from = tf.train.latest_checkpoint("model/last_weights")
#Reload the weights into the variables of the graph
saver.restore(sess, restore_from)


### TensorBoard

• TensorFlow comes with an excellent visualization tool called TensorBoard that enables you to plot different scalars (and much more) in real-time, as you train your model.
• TensorBoard follows the following steps:
1. Define some summaries (nodes of the graph) that will tell TensorFlow which values we want to plot.
2. Evaluate these nodes in the session.
3. Write the output to a file thanks to a tf.summary.FileWriter.
• To launch TensorBoard in your web-browser, run:
TensorBoard --logdir="expirements/base_model"

• Navigate to http://127.0.0.1:6006/ and you’ll see the different plots.
• In the code examples, we add the summaries in model/model_fn.py.
# Compute different scalars to plot
loss = tf.reduce_mean(losses)
accuracy = tf.reduce_mean(tf.cast(tf.equal(labels, predictions), tf.float32))

# Summaries for training
tf.summary.scalar('loss', loss)
tf.summary.scalar('accuracy', accuracy)

• Note that we don’t use the metrics that we defined earlier. The reason being that the tf.metrics returns the running average, but TensorBoard already takes care of the smoothing, so we don’t want to add any additional smoothing. It’s actually rather the opposite: we are interested in real-time progress
• Once these nodes are added to the model_spec dictionary, we need to evaluate them in a session. In our implementation, this is done every params.save_summary_steps as you’ll notice in the model/training.py file.
if i % params.save_summary_steps == 0:
#Perform a mini-batch update
_, _, loss_val, summ, global_step_val = sess.run([train_op, update_metrics, loss, summary_op, global_step])
#Write summaries for TensorBoard

else:
_, _, loss_val = sess.run([train_op, update_metrics, loss])

• You’ll notice that we have two different writers:
train_writer = tf.summary.FileWriter(os.path.join(model_dir, 'train_summaries'), sess.graph)
eval_writer = tf.summary.FileWriter(os.path.join(model_dir, 'eval_summaries'), sess.graph)

• They’ll write summaries for both the training and the evaluation, letting you plot both plots on the same graph!
• For more details, check out TensorFlow’s official documentation

### Writing a custom activation function

• To define a custom activation function, say min_relu() that returns $$min(0, -z)$$ (instead of ReLU that returns $$max(0, z)$$):
def min_relu(x):
return - tf.keras.activations.relu(-x)

tf.keras.utils.get_custom_objects().update({'min-relu': Activation(min_relu)})

• An example using the newly defined activation function min_relu():
(x_train, y_train), (x_test, y_test) = mnist.load_data()
x_train, x_test = x_train / 255.0, x_test / 255.0
model = Sequential([
Flatten(input_shape=(28, 28)),
Dense(512, activation='min-relu'),
Dropout(0.2),
Dense(10, activation='softmax')
])


### Model summary

• Call tf.keras.Model.summary() to print a summary of the model, which includes:
• Name and type of all layers in the model.
• Output shape for each layer.
• Number of weight parameters of each layer.
• The total number of trainable and non-trainable parameters of the model.
Model Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Layer (type)                     Output Shape          Param #     Connected to
====================================================================================================
input_1 (InputLayer)             (None, 1, 15, 27)     0
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
convolution2d_1 (Convolution2D)  (None, 8, 15, 27)     872         input_1[0][0]
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
maxpooling2d_1 (MaxPooling2D)    (None, 8, 7, 27)      0           convolution2d_1[0][0]
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
flatten_1 (Flatten)              (None, 1512)          0           maxpooling2d_1[0][0]
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
dense_1 (Dense)                  (None, 1)             1513        flatten_1[0][0]
====================================================================================================
Total params: 2,385
Trainable params: 2,385
Non-trainable params: 0

• Note that the None values in the output shapes of the layers indicate that the model expects the input to have a batch size as the outermost dimension, which in this case can be flexible due to the None value.

• Read more on TensorFlow’s official documentation.

### global_step

• In order to keep track of where we are in the training process, we use one of TensorFlow’s training utilities, the global_step.
• Once initialized, we give it to the optimizer.minimize() as shown below. Thus, each time we will run sess.run(train_op), it will increment the global_step by $$1$$.
• This is very useful for summaries (notice how in the TensorBoard section, we give the global step to the writer).
global_step = tf.train.get_or_create_global_step()
train_op = optimizer.minimize(loss, global_step=global_step)